Method for the quantitative and qualitative characterization of antigen-specific t cells recognizing a specific antigen

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to a method for sensitive quantitative and/or qualitative analysis of target T cells comprising the steps a) enrichment of said cells from a mixture of said cells and other cells in a sample by the use of one or more activation markers expressed on antigen-activated T cells in a parallel cell sorting process and b) analysis of the cells of step a). 
     The invention relates also to a method of diagnosing diseases based on the analysis of the target T cells.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the priority benefit of European Patent Application No. 11164382.1, filed Apr. 29, 2011, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to a method for the qualitative and quantitative characterization of antigen-specific T cells recognizing a specific antigen in body fluids by the use of antigen-specific T cell activation markers.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

T cells are the central organizers and effectors of the immune system and are responsible for effective immunity against pathogens and tumors as well as for keeping unresponsiveness (tolerance) against autoantigens and harmless non-self antigens, such as food. To achieve this goal T cells are educated either during their early development in the thymus or later on in the periphery to acquire distinct effector functions, which can be stably inherited from a single cell to its progeny and in this way contribute to immunological memory. The type of effector function a certain T cell, specific for a defined antigen has acquired, may determine the outcome of the immune response and may therefore have high diagnostic or prognostic value for immune mediated diseases, infections or cancer. The type of T lymphocyte activation and differentiation into certain functional distinct populations is determined by co-stimulatory activation signals from antigen-presenting cells. Activation signals are represented by ligands for receptors of T lymphocytes. Said ligands are situated on the surface of the APCs, they are bound to the extracellular matrix or secreted by cells, as are the cytokines. However, in addition to antigen-specific activation by signals via the antigen receptor of the T lymphocytes and co-stimulating ligands, non-specific activation of T lymphocytes has also been described, e.g. via cytokines or lectins.

Antigen-specific T cells direct the immune response against pathogens expressing said antigen. To cope with the almost unrestricted diversity of antigens, a single individual might be confronted with, the immune system generates a high diversity of receptors for T and B lymphocytes. Due to this high diversity the frequency of a single specificity is rather low and probably in the range of 1 in 10⁶ (Alanio et al. 2010; Moon et al., 2007) in the naïve immune system. Upon encounter with the antigen a single reactive clone can strongly expand. After clearance of the infection the size of the clonally expanded cells contracts and usually the frequency for antigen-specific memory cells ranges from 10⁻⁵-1%. Information about the frequency phenotype and functional capabilities of the rare antigen-specific T cells may have important diagnostic or prognostic value for infections, tumors or immune mediated diseases, such as autoimmune diseases. However, the quantitative and qualitative characterization of rare antigen-specific T lymphocytes recognizing a specific antigen is only possible with some imprecision with the present state of the art. Technologies have been described to identify antigen-specific T cells, based on specific antigen binding, e.g. multimeric complexes of peptide-loaded MHC molecules (Altman and Davis, 2003; Sims et al. 2010), or based on expression of “activation” markers, e.g. cytokines, CD137 (Wehler et al., 2008; Wolfl et al., 2008; Wolfl et al., 2007), CD154 (Chattopadhyay et al., 2005; Frentsch et al., 2005; Kirchhoff et al., 2007; Thiel et al., 2004), upon in vitro activation with the specific antigen. Multimers have the limitation that the respective antigen and MHC allele have to be exactly defined, which is rarely the case, especially for complex pathogenic organisms such as bacteria, virus, fungi or multicellular parasites, which may express thousands of potential antigens. Furthermore only few MHC class II multimers for the detection of antigen-specific T helper cells have been described. In contrast, activation markers can be used for CD8 and CD4 T cells and are not restricted to certain MHC alleles, e.g. T cells reactive to a certain antigen independent of exactly defined peptide epitopes and HLA-restriction can be identified by antigen-induced expression of activation markers such as cytokine secretion (Campbell et al., 2011) CD137 or CD154 (Chattopadhyay et al., 2005; Frentsch et al., 2005; Kirchhoff et al., 2007; Thiel et al., 2004; Wehler et al., 2008; Wolfl et al., 2008; Wolfl et al., 2007) WO2004/027428; EP appl. no. 10175578). Any suitable antigen can be used for stimulation, i.e. peptides, proteins, superantigens, pathogen or target cell lysates, or antigen-presenting cells transfected with antigen coding mRNA or antigen expression plasmids.

There are also examples describing that T cells expressing activation markers such as CD154 or cytokines can be isolated, for example via magnetic cell separation to obtain antigen-specific T cell isolates which may be used for cellular therapies (Frentsch et al 2005, Miltenyi Biotec Manual CD154 Microbead Kit,). In another example, Stuehler et al have used CD154 to sort fungi reactive T cells from expansion cultures. Khanna et al used magnetic CD154 selection to generate multipathogen-reactive T cells, including T cells reactive against fungi. However, in none of these examples the used enrichment procedure was shown to be capable to quantitatively select target cells from large cell samples and in particular it was not shown that this technology is able to increase the sensitivity of the detection system and to be able to analyse very small populations which were below the detection limit of conventional flow-cytometry (0.1-0.01%). In particular the enrichment was never used to increase the sensitivity of the assay in such a way that the identification T cells from the naïve repertoire became possible which were always regarded to be below the detection level of conventional flow-cytometry (<10⁻⁵). In these examples the enrichment was also not shown to be suitable to quantitatively separate target cells from large cell samples with the aim to collect sufficient amounts of target cells to allow the analysis of small functionally or phenotypically defined subpopulations relevant for diagnostic or prognostic evaluations.

In two other examples IL-17 cytokine producing cells have been magnetically enriched (Niemöller et al 2010, Kalaydjiev 2009). Also in these examples the IL-17 enrichment was not described to be able to quantitatively assess the frequency of very rare cell populations. It was shown that rare cells can be enriched, but this was not surprising since it was shown in many examples before that cytokine production is a very specific feature of recently activated T cells with little background, i.e. little enrichment of false positive cells. However, IL-17 such as most other cytokines are only produced by a small or at least highly variable subset of T cells within the total antigen-specific T cell population. In particular, effector cytokines such as IL-17 are not expressed by naïve T cells and thus this technology cannot be used for the analysis of the total pool of antigen-reactive T cells and in particular it cannot be used for analysis of the naïve repertoire.

Indeed, for rare antigen-specific T cells recognizing a specific antigen, comprehensive information about the frequency, phenotype and antigen-specificity of these cells in healthy donors and about disease associated changes are missing.

Due to their low frequency most T cell analyses especially those focusing on CD4 T cell responses, e.g. for the detection of rare autoantigen-specific, tumor-specific or fungi-reactive T cells employed long-lasting in vitro culture and/or population-based methods (³H-thymidin incorporation, ELISA) or ELISPOT (Bozza et al., 2009; Chai et al.; Chaudhary et al.; Day et al., 2003; Hebart et al., 2002; Nepom, 2005; Perruccio et al., 2005; Potenza et al., 2007; Vollers and Stern, 2008; Warris et al., 2005; Wolfl et al., 2008; Wolfl et al., 2007)), providing limited information about the correlation of frequency, phenotype and function of the reactive cells. These methods also suffer from prolonged in vitro manipulation of the reactive T cells making it difficult to draw conclusions about the phenotype or function of the T cells directly ex vivo, i.e. at the onset of the in vitro culture. If cytokine production is taken as a read-out the analysis is restricted to a certain cytokine producing subsets, which may represent only a fraction of all reactive T cells.

Despite their low frequency the antigen-specific T cells are regarded as key players orchestrating or executing immune responses and to be relevant for the ethiopathogenesis of multiple autoimmune diseases, tumors, infectious diseases. Thus understanding the frequency, phenotype and function of these rare events, i.e. obtaining statistically significant data, is a major problem for diagnostic or prognostic evaluation of T cell immunity in these clinical situations (Janeway's Immunobiology, 7^(th) edition 2008, Chapter 13, 14.8-14.17, 15.14-15.18). Despite their central role the direct ex vivo analysis of autoreactive or tumor reactive T cells is so far not routinely be used, due to the technical limitations described above (Herold et al., 2009).

One important example for the application of specific T cell analyses is fungal infections, which are difficult to control and affect mainly immunocompromised patients. In fact, invasive fungal infections have become a major cause of infection-related mortality in immunocompromised patients, mainly caused by the two opportunistic fungi Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans. Initial, neutropenia and defects in the phagocyte cell function have been described as risk factors for developing invasive fungal infections but in the recent time it has been shown, that CD4⁺ T helper cells also play a critical role in the host defense against fungal pathogens.

In healthy individuals as well as in patients surviving invasive infection, antigen-specific proliferation of IFN-γ-producing T cells was detected upon stimulation with Aspergillus antigens (Hebart et al., 2002).

In addition, Aspergillus and Candida have been described to elicit distinct patterns of T_(H) cell cytokines, including T_(H)1 and T_(H)2 (Cenci et al., 1998a; Cenci et al., 1997; Hebart et al., 2002; Kurup et al., 2001), T_(H)17 (Bozza et al., 2009; Conti et al., 2009; Zhou et al., 2008), T_(H)22 (Liu et al., 2009) and even T_(reg) responses (Bozza et al., 2009). Several studies in mice and human suggest that a T_(H)1 response is correlated with antifungal protection whereas the production of T_(H)2 cytokines is linked to pathogenic fungal infection (Cenci et al., 1999; Cenci et al., 1998a; Cenci et al., 1998b; Cenci et al., 1997; Hebart et al., 2002; Perruccio et al., 2005). In addition, the recently identified T_(H)17 subset has also been implicated to play an important role in mucosal immunity against fungi, since studies in mice and humans demonstrated that the absence of IL-17 responses directly correlates with increased susceptibility to chronic and invasive Candida infections (Conti et al., 2009; Eyerich et al., 2008; Huang et al., 2004; Ma et al., 2008; Milner et al., 2008).

However, due to their very low frequencies comprehensive information about the frequency, phenotype and single antigen-specificity of fungi-reactive T cells in healthy donors and about disease associated changes are still missing. In particular direct ex vivo analyses of fungus-reactive T cells describing the total repertoire of T cells with specificity for fungi without prolonged in vitro manipulation is so far lacking. This is true for healthy donors and even more in immunocompromised persons. In the latter the detection can severely be affected by the fact that total T cell numbers may be drastically reduced or be deviated from standard values. Khanna et al (Blood 2009, 114: Abstract 1170) used the activation marker CD154 for identification of low frequency multiple novel Aspergillus fumigatus (AF) specific MHC class II epitopes after cultivation of cells in vitro for more than one week. In Khanna et al (Blood 2010, 116: Abstract 2326) they used the activation marker CD154 for selection of Aspergillus fumigatus specific T cells from stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and co-cultured them with irradiated autologous PBMC for more than one week before analysis whereas AF-specific T cells were undetectable in PBMC.

In Jolink et al (Blood 2010, 116: Abstract 2332) peripheral blood mononuclear cells of healthy individuals were stimulated with overlapping 15 mer peptides of the Aspergillus fumigatus proteins Crf1 and Catalase1. Directly after stimulation no antigen specific T cells could be detected, however after stimulation with the complete peptide pool, IL-2 and IL-15 for 7 days and subsequent restimulation with peptide pulsed autologous PBMC an increase of activated T cells could be detected in half of the healthy donors, based on IFNγ production, CD154 (CD40 ligand) and CD137 expression.

All of these technologies allow to analyse antigen-specific T Cells by flow-cytometry. However, the sensitivity limit of conventional flow-cytometry is about 0.1%. Many antigen-specific T cells in body fluids as e.g. blood samples or PBMC of patients or healthy donors are well below this limit and in addition for many situations it is important to further dissect the total pool of antigen-specific T cells into even smaller subpopulations which may have distinct functional characteristics, e.g cytokine producing cells. Changes within these subpopulations may have more diagnostic or prognostic value than the mere frequency of antigen-specific cells. Thus to detect small subpopulations with statistical significance, sufficiently high numbers of specific T cells have to be recorded, which necessitates to acquire high number of total T cells for each single measurement.

The sensitivity of flow-cytometry regarding rare cell detection is determined by the number of cells which can be acquired and the biological and methodological background, i.e. frequency of non-target cells expressing the marker and the frequency of false positive cells not expressing the marker. The latter depend largely on the quality of the sample and the specific features of target antigen.

To increase the limit of sensitivity, magnetic pre-enrichment of MHC-multimer-labelled T cells has been used (Sims et al. 2010; Vollers and Stern, 2008). In this way the few antigen-specific CD8 T cells in a large sample can be enriched by a rapid magnetic processing step, which is more or less not limited to a certain cell number, due to parallel processing of the cells on the magnetic column. In the second time limiting step, e.g. the flow-cytometric analysis, only the relatively few enriched cells have to be measured. In this way large cell numbers can be processed in a short period of time and this allows to sample sufficient numbers of target cells to analyse cells even at frequencies<10⁻⁶.

However due to the lack of suitable MHC class II tetramers this technology is not broadly applicable to CD4 T helper cells, which are of particular interest for autoimmune diseases or infections with extracellular pathogens, e.g. fungi or worms. Furthermore MHC multimers detect T cells only based on a certain affinity threshold of the antigen-receptor to the MHC/peptide-complex, which is somehow artificially determined by the specific multimeric features (avidity) of the particular multimer (Vollers and Stern, 2008). Thus T cells below this threshold might be lost although they may react to the naturally presented peptides on APC. Therefore the analysis of antigen-reactive T cells, as done via the use of “activation markers” is more reliable in terms of detection of cells, which have the functional capacity to play an active role in a particular immune response.

On the other hand the technologies for detection of antigen-specific T cells based on analysis of surface expressed activation markers such as CD154 or CD137 suffer from a relatively high frequency of “natural” background events, which are usually larger than 0.01-0.1%, which has therefore been considered to define the natural limit of sensitivity of this approach. This background is either induced already in vivo, i.e. small numbers of activated T cells in the blood circulation, or they become unspecifically activated upon in vitro culture. Therefore, the enrichment prior to analysis of antigen-activated T cells expressing certain activation markers like CD154 or CD137 (WO2004/027428, EP appl. no. 10175578) in order to increase the limit of sensitivity has not been considered as a technological option and these technologies have so far not been used to analyse rare antigen-specific CD4 T cells like fungi-reactive T cells or small subsets thereof at frequencies below 0.1%. In particular state-of-the-art was regarding these technologies as suitable for the analysis of antigen-specific memory T cells (>0.01-0.1%) but not for the naive T cell repertoire where the single specificities have been calculated to occur at much lower frequencies (0.0001%). Another technological difficulty was to simultaneously address activation markers on the surface, which is required for the enrichment, together with intracellular cytokines, an important functional parameter of T cells. To be able to detect intracellular cytokines the cells have to be incubated for prolonged time (several hours) with secretion inhibitors, e.g. monensin or brefeldin A, to achieve accumulation of the cytokines within the cell, followed by fixation. Secretion inhibitors at the same time block the export of the activation markers to the cell surface. This makes it difficult to achieve the combination of activation marker availability, e.g. for magnetic particle labelling and subsequent magnetic enrichment, with intracellular staining. In addition following the enrichment of small numbers of target cells further manipulations, e.g. fixation, intracellular cytokine staining are required which usually lead to cell loss, which affects the correct quantitation of target cell numbers and in addition reduces the sensitivity of the assay, due to lower target cells which can be analysed.

The object of the present invention is therefore to provide an improved method for quantitative and qualitative analysis of antigen-specific T cells or subpopulations thereof (referred to as “target” T cells) by the combined enrichment of the target cells followed by a second analysis step, without major cell loss and without the need for further in vitro manipulation of the cellular phenotype or function.

All references, publications, and patent applications disclosed herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention solves the above technical problem by a method using magnetic cell separation using activation markers of antigen-specific T cells to increase the frequency of target T cells before further analysis of these cells, e.g. flow-cytometric analysis and the handling of the small cell numbers and associated cell loss was improved by manipulation of the cells directly on the columns used for enrichment.

It was surprising that we could establish a method for the specific enrichment of target T cells based on activation marker expression, e.g. CD154 expression, which allowed to separate rare antigen-specifically activated T cells from unspecific background. First, this was achieved by adjusting the conditions in a way that mainly brightly labelled T cells, which resemble those T cells which have been activated by antigen, are enriched versus low expressing “background” cells, resembling weakly activated, e.g. low affinity, T cells or T cells activated already in vivo at an earlier timepoint, i.e. residual activation marker expression or T cells activated by non TCR signals, i.e. bystander activation. Second, we have developed a new strategy to allow simultaneous detection of activation markers on the surface and accumulation of intracellular cytokines for their optimal detection by intracellular cytokine staining. This was achieved by subsequent stimulation with and without secretion inhibitors for optimized time periods. Another restriction of rare cell analysis is the cell loss during several processing steps, i.e. surface staining, fixation, intracellular staining. This cell loss severely affects the sensitivity of the method as well as the accuracy of quantitative and qualitative analysis. Therefore the invention includes staining of the cells following enrichment directly on the enrichment column, e.g. a magnetic column, especially MACS columns, which dramatically reduce cell loss, i.e. recovery of more target cells allowed us to accurately determine the target cell numbers as well as the analysis of phenotypic and functional subpopulations.

This new combined activation and labelling method allows to quantitatively select the target T cells on the basis of activation marker expression for their quantitation and simultaneous analysis of their functional and phenotypic properties. The invention allows to analyse large numbers of cells (at least up to 5×10¹⁰) for the presence of antigen-specific T cells and to characterise them phenotypically and functionally, e.g. for cytokine expression. The invention restricts the sensitivity of the analysis basically to the number of available input cells (see example 1, FIG. 1D). It was also surprising that even very small subpopulations of specific cytokine producing subsets or even naive T cells were detectable by the invention.

It was particularly surprising that we could analyse the natural repertoire of fungi reactive T cells in all healthy subjects tested as well as in patients with fungus associated diseases. The invention allowed us to define standard values for healthy subjects and define considerable changes associated with specific diseases, which might have prognostic or diagnostic values. These diseases associated changes occurred at the level of small subsets of antigen-specific T cells, producing certain cytokines and would not have been detectable by conventional means.

Similarly we were able to identify and characterize tumor- or autoantigen-reactive CD4 T cells from healthy subjects as well as patients. These cells occurred in healthy subjects at frequencies as low as about 1 in 10⁵ (see FIGS. 9 and 10).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows CD154⁺ enrichment increases the sensitivity of detection of antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cells. Panel A shows graphs demonstrating CD154 expression among CD4⁺ cells (bold) for one representative donor. Panel B is a graph showing CD154 expression among CD4⁺ cells for several donors with indicated mean. Panel C shows graphs demonstrating magnetic enrichment of CD154⁺ cells among CD4⁺ cells. Upper plots are after stimulation. Lower plots are after MACS sorting. Numbers in brackets indicate the number of CD154⁺ cells after acquiring 2×10⁵ PBMCs (upper plots) or obtained from 1×10⁷ PBMCs after enrichment (lower plots). Panel D is a graph showing the detection limit of the assay. The number of enriched CD154+ cells from different starting cell numbers of Aspergillus or non-stimulated PBMC is shown (n=5). Panel E is a graph showing CD154⁺ cell numbers out of 10⁷ PBMCs after Aspergillus stimulation performing intracellular cytokine staining either on the MACS column or after separation (n=30). Significance was determined using unpaired Student's t-test. Panels F and G show a comparison of the CD154⁺ enrichment assay with standard flow counting using 1×10⁶ starting PBMCs (n=20). Panel F is a graph showing CD154⁺ cell numbers of non-stimulated or A. fumigatus stimulated samples. To optimize the detection and quantification of CD154⁺ events among CD3⁺CD4⁺ T cells, cell aggregates (scatter area versus scatter height) and non-T cell lineages (CD14⁺, CD20⁺, dump) were excluded. Panel G is a graph showing the signal-to-noise ratio was calculated based on CD154⁺ cell numbers in A. fumigatus stimulated and non-stimulated PBMCs. Significance was determined using paired Student's t-test. Panel H is a graph showing intra-assay variability of the recovered CD154⁺ cell numbers. Different PBMC starting cell numbers from two donors were stimulated in triplicates with A. fumigatus lysate and recovered CD154⁺ cell numbers were analyzed after performing the CD154⁺ enrichment assay. Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to calculate correlations (p<0.0001).

FIG. 2 shows CD154⁺ enrichment specifically identifies antigen-reactive T cells. Panel A is a graph showing inhibition of the CD154 induction by an antiHLA-DR blocking antibody. PBMCs of pp65-tetramer positive donors were stimulated with the indicated antigens in the presence or absence of antiHLA-DR mAb and the number of CD154⁺ T cells after enrichment (left) or the frequencies of CD154⁺ T cells without enrichment (right) were analyzed. Bars show mean percentages and SEM from 4 donors referring to samples without antiHLA-DR. Two independent experiments were performed. Panel B is a graph showing CD3⁺ T cells and CD3⁻ APCs were separated from PBMCs of pp65 tetramer positive donors. Stimulation was performed under the indicated conditions and the number of CD154⁺ T cells after enrichment was analyzed. Bars indicate mean percentages and SEM of CD154⁺ cells referring to live APCs+antigen stimulated samples from 3 different donors. Panel C shows plots demonstrating PBMCs of CMV sero-positive donors were stimulated with Aspergillus- or Candida-lysate. Antigen-reactive CD154⁺ cells were isolated and subsequently expanded for 14 days with IL-2 and autologous feeder cells. Expanded cell lines were re-stimulated in presence of autologous APCs with and without antigens as indicated, and reactive CD4⁺ T cells were determined by CD154 and TNF-α expression. Data of one representative donor out of 7 with percentage of reactive cells among CD4⁺ are shown. Panel D shows plots demonstrating PBMCs were stimulated with the indicated recall antigens. CD154⁺ cells were isolated and subsequently expanded. Expanded cell lines were re-stimulated with and without antigens as indicated, and reactive CD4⁺ T cells were analyzed by CD154 and TNF-α expression. Representative dot plot examples of one donor out of five with percentage of reactive cells among CD4⁺ lymphocytes are shown.

FIG. 3 shows phenotypic analysis of pathogen-reactive CD4⁺ T cells. Panel A shows dot plot examples for surface staining with percentages of cells among CD154⁺ cells and cell count (in brackets). Panel B are graphs summarizing cells among CD154⁺ cells from several donors (A. fumigatus, C. albicans n=18, CMV n=22, AdV n=10, tetanus n=12) with statistical significance of mean values, as determined by paired Student's t-test. Panel C shows graphs demonstrating the percentage of cytokine-expressing cells among the indicated phenotypic subsets gated on CD4⁺CD154⁺ T cells for several donors, with horizontal lines indicating mean values. Three independent experiments were performed.

FIG. 4 shows characterization of small cytokine producing subsets within the total antigen-specific T cell pool. Cells were gated on CD4⁺ lymphocytes and percentages of cytokine-expressing cells among CD154⁺ T cells are shown. Panel A shows representative dot plot examples. Panel B shows graphs demonstrating statistical analysis from several donors with indicated mean values (n=5, two independent experiments were performed). Frequencies of antigen-specific T cells (first diagram) were calculated from the total number of CD154⁺ cells obtained after enrichment normalized to the total number of CD4⁺ cells applied on the column.

FIG. 5 shows analysis of Aspergillus-reactive T cells in patients with hematologic malignancies. Panel A is a graph showing frequencies of Aspergillus-reactive T cells in peripheral blood of healthy donors (n=55) versus hematologic patients (n=17). Two patients with proven invasive Aspergillosis are depicted as white triangle and white circle, respectively. Panel B is a graph showing the number of Aspergillus-reactive T cells per ml peripheral blood in hematologic patients. The range of healthy donors is marked in grey. Panel C shows graphs demonstrating the kinetics of the Aspergillus-specific T cell response in one patient with proven invasive Aspergillosis (white triangle in panels A, B). The frequency of reactive cells (dotted line; right axis) as well as the IFN−/IL-10 ratio (dark line; left axis) and percentage of IFN− (dark grey) and IL-10 (light grey) producers among CD154+ (lower graph) were determined over a time period of 33 days.

FIG. 6 shows increased frequencies and IL-22 production by Candida-reactive T cells in patients with Crohn's disease. Panel A is a graph showing frequencies of Candida-reactive T cells in peripheral blood of healthy donors (n=55) versus patients with Crohn's disease (n=31) or ulcerative colitis (n=9) as well as E. Coli-reactive T cells (healthy n=9, CD n=13, CU n=5). Significance was determined using unpaired Student's t-test. Panel B shows plots demonstrating cytokine production of Candida-reactive T cells from one representative CD patient. Percentage of cytokine producing cells among CD154+ cells is indicated. Panel C shows graphs summarizing cytokine production from several patients compared to healthy controls with statistical significance of mean values, as determined by unpaired Student's t-test. Panel D is a graph showing C-reactive protein serum levels of Candida high-responders (>0.4% CD154⁺; n=16) versus low-responders (<0.4% CD154; n=11). Significance was determined using unpaired Student's t-test.

FIG. 7 shows that in some patients with cystic fibrosis, the Aspergillus-reactive T cell response is biased towards a T_(H)2 cytokine pattern. Panel A shows plots from a representative example of the Aspergillus-specific cytokine expression from one CF patient. Percentages of cytokine producing cells among CD154⁺ cells are indicated. Panel B shows a summary of cytokine profiles from CF patients with T_(H)2 profile (n=4), without T_(H)2 profile (n=4) and healthy controls (n=9). Significance was determined using unpaired Student's t-test.

FIG. 8 shows enrichment and characterization of antigen-specific regulatory T cells via CD137. Panel A shows plots demonstrating PBMCs were stimulated with the indicated antigens and analysed for CD137-expression among CD4⁺CD25⁺FoxP3⁺ T cells. Dot plot example for one representative donor out of 40 is shown. Panel B shows magnetically enrichment of CD154⁺ and CD137⁺ T cells followed by CD25 and FoxP3 staining. Percentage of CD25⁺FoxP3⁺ T cells among enriched CD154⁺ or CD137⁺ are indicated. Panel C shows Representative dot plot examples and Panel D shows statistical analysis for intracellular cytokine staining of CD154⁺ or CD137⁺ cells after combined enrichment. Numbers indicated percentage of cytokine positive cells among activation marker positive CD4⁺ cells.

FIG. 9 shows CD137⁺ enrichment specifically identifies antigen-reactive regulatory T cells. Expanded regulatory T cells were re-stimulated with the indicated antigens and analyzed for expression of CD137 and CD154. Panel A shows representative dot plot examples of Aspergillus-specific Tregs from one donor with percentages of activation marker positive cells among CD4⁺ lymphocytes. Panel B shows statistical analysis of Aspergillus-specific or polyclonal Tregs from several donors showing percentage of CD137⁺ cells among CD4⁺ lymphocytes. Panel C shows results of a Suppression assay with expanded Aspergillus-reactive Tregs (black solid line, n=11), polyclonal Tregs (light grey dotted line, n=11) or Aspergillus-reactive CD154⁺ T cell lines (dark grey dotted line, n=7). Percentage of inhibition of allogeneic proliferation at different Treg:Tresponder ratios is indicated.

FIG. 10 shows enumeration and characterization of CD4⁺ T cells reactive against auto-, tumor- or neo-antigens in healthy donors using CD154. Panel A shows dot plots from the following: 1×10⁸ PBMCs were stimulated as indicated and CD154⁺ expression among CD4⁺ T cells was analyzed without enrichment (upper plots) and after performing the CD154⁺ enrichment assay (lower plots). Indicated are percentages of CD154⁺ cells among CD4⁺ and number of CD154⁺ cells after acquiring 5×10⁵ PBMCs (upper plots) or obtained from 1×10⁸ PBMCs after enrichment (lower plots). Panel B shows enumeration of rare antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cells in several donors using the CD154⁺ enrichment assay. The total number of enriched CD154⁺ T cells was determined using a single, live, non-dump, CD3⁺CD4⁺ gating strategy and background enriched from the non-stimulated control was subtracted. Depicted is the total number of CD154⁺ cells obtained after enrichment normalized to the total number of CD4⁺ cells applied on the column (MP65 n=21; GAD, NY-ESO n=19; MOG, WT-1 n=16; KLH, HIV Gag n=6). Panels C and D show enriched CD154⁺ cells ex vivo analyzed for phenotypical surface markers CD45RO and CCR7. Cells are gated on CD4⁺CD154⁺ lymphocytes. Panel C shows representative dot plot examples from one donor with percentages of cells among CD154⁺ cells and cell count (in brackets) and Panel D shows statistical analysis for percentage of CD45RO⁻CCR7⁺ cells among the total number of CD154⁺ cells (n=6; two independent experiments were performed). Background enriched from the non-stimulated control was subtracted. Panels E and F show CD154⁺ enrichment allows generation of antigen-specific T cell lines from the naïve CD4⁺ T cell repertoire. 10⁸ purified memory (Panel E) or naïve (Panel F) CD4⁺ T cells were stimulated with CD3-depleted APCs and the indicated antigens. Enriched CD154⁺ cells were expanded for 14 days with IL-2 and autologous feeder cells. Expanded cell lines were re-stimulated in presence of autologous APCs with and without antigens as indicated, and reactive CD4⁺ T cells were determined by CD154 and TNF-α expression. Representative dot plot examples of one donor out of three with percentage of reactive cells among total CD4⁺ are shown.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

A method was surprisingly found for the qualitative and quantitative characterization of target T cells recognizing a specific antigen by the use of antigen-specific T cell activation markers, e.g. CD154 expression, directly from samples as e.g. body fluids or PBMC without the need of prior in vitro expansion of the cells.

The technologies for detection of antigen-specific T cells based on analysis of surface expressed activation markers such as CD154 or CD137 suffer from a relatively high frequency of “natural” background events, which are usually larger than 0.01-0.1%, which therefore defines the natural limit of sensitivity of this approach. Therefore, the pre-analysis enrichment of antigen-activated T cells expressing certain activation markers like CD154 or CD137 (WO2004/027428, EP2306191) has not been considered as a technological option and these technologies have so far not been used to analyse rare antigen-specific CD4 T cells like fungi-reactive T cells or small subsets thereof at frequencies below 0.1%. Thus it was totally unexpected that these technologies are suitable for the analysis of the naive T cell repertoire where the single specificities have been calculated to occur at much lower frequencies (0.0001%).

In addition the combination of enrichment and intracellular staining allows the further classification of cytokine producing subsets, which may present only 1% of the total antigen-specific T cell response and therefore would not be accessible without pre-enrichment step. To precisely define frequencies of small functional and phenotypic T cell subsets a sufficient number of antigen-specific target cells is necessary. Therefore we combined the high sensitivity of the enrichment with a minimal loss of target cells through characterization by performing all manipulations, e.g. permeabilisation, intracellular or surface staining procedures directly on the magnetic column. In this way, the sensitivity of the method is restricted to the number of available input cells and not affected by a loss of cells during washing and centrifugation steps, which are necessary for intracellular cytokine staining (see example 1, FIG. 1E).

The present invention relates to a method using magnetic cell separation using activation markers for selection of antigen-specific T cells to increase the frequency of target T cells and subsequent analysis of these cells, e.g. flow-cytometric analysis.

Information about the frequency phenotype and functional capabilities of the target T cells may have important diagnostic or prognostic value for infections or immune mediated diseases.

In a preferred embodiment of the invention the method comprises a method for sensitive quantitative and/or qualitative analysis of target T cells comprising the steps

a) enrichment of said cells from a mixture of said cells and other cells in a sample by the use of one or more activation markers expressed on antigen-activated T cells in a parallel cell sorting process and

b) analysis of the cells of step a).

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the parallel cell sorting process is a magnetic cell sorting process.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the magnetic cell sorting process uses superparamagnetic beads and separation columns.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention manipulations of the target T cells following step a) are directly performed on the separation column. The manipulations may be selected from the group consisting of permeabilisation, intracellular or surface staining.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the activation markers are CD137 and/or CD154 and/or cytokines.

In another embodiment of the invention the method comprises a method for sensitive quantitative and/or qualitative analysis of target T cells comprising the steps

a) enrichment of said cells from a mixture of said cells and other cells in a sample by the use of the activation marker CD154 expressed on antigen-activated T cells in a magnetic cell sorting process; and

b) analysis of the cells of step a), and

wherein the enrichment of the target T cells in said sample of step a) is after activation of the cells of the sample with an antigen and blocking or inhibiting the interaction between CD40 and CD154 by using a CD40/CD154 system inhibitor.

In another embodiment of the invention the method comprises a method for sensitive quantitative and/or qualitative analysis of target T cells comprising the steps

a) enrichment of said cells from a mixture of said cells and other cells in a sample by the use of the activation marker CD137 expressed on antigen-activated T cells in a magnetic cell sorting process; and

b) analysis of the cells of step a).

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the analysis of step b) is flow cytometry.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the target T cells are selected from the group consisting of naïve T cells, memory T cells, and regulatory T cells.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the target T cells are specific for pathogens, tumor antigens, environmental antigens (allergens) or autoantigens.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the target T cells are specific for fungi.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the target T cells are specific for Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the method comprises a method for diagnosing fungal infections in animals, preferentially humans.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the method comprises a method for diagnosing autoimmune diseases in animals, preferentially humans.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the method comprises a method for diagnosing allergies in animals, preferentially humans.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the method comprises a method for diagnosing tumor diseases in animals, preferentially humans.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the method comprises a method for monitoring or predict the success of vaccination with a certain antigen.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention, the antigen-specific T cells are obtained from a sample selected from the group of fresh blood, frozen cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and/or other body fluids.

In a further preferred embodiment of the method according to the invention, inflammatory, anti-inflammatory, regulatory and/or suppressive T lymphocytes are isolated and analysed. In some embodiments of the invention these cells may be used in cellular therapies for preventive or causal treatment of infectious, allergic, inflammatory, malignant and/or autoimmune diseases.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the target T cells analysed within the mixture of said cells and other cells in the sample are below 0.1% in frequency.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the target T cells are CD4+ and/or CD8+ T cells.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the target T cells are specific for fungi, especially pathogenic fungi. Preferentially, the target T cells specific for fungi are selected from the group of Candida, e.g. C. albicans, C. glabrata; Aspergillus, e.g. A. fumigatus, A. flavus, A. clavatus, A. terreus, A. niger, A. nidulans; Cryptococcus, e.g. C. neoformans, C. laurentii, C. albidus, C. gattii, Histoplasma capsulatum, Pneumocystis jirovecii (or Pneumocystis carinii), Stachybotrys chartarum. More preferentially, the target T cells specific for fungi are specific for Aspergillus fumigatus or Candida albicans.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the target T cells are specific for tumor-antigens.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention the target T cells are specific for environmental antigens (allergens).

Lymphocytes and other leukocytes express a wide variety of molecules on their cell surface. Some appear for only a short time during particular phases of differentiation or following activation of the cells. Other molecules are constant and typical of the respective series of cells. Such antigens with constant expression can be utilized as markers for particular cell populations.

The term “target T cells” as used herein refers to rare antigen-specific T cells or subsets thereof in body fluids, as blood samples or PBMC of patients or healthy donors, which are below the sensitivity limit of a conventional flow-cytometry assay, which is often about 0.1-0.01%. This detection limit may also refer to the frequency of certain subsets within the total population of specific T cells even if the total antigen-specific T cell frequency is above the limit, e.g. the frequency of a T cell subset producing a certain cytokine (see below). Therefore, for rare antigen-specific T cells recognizing a specific antigen, e.g. fungi-reactive T-cells comprehensive information about the frequency, phenotype and antigen-specificity of these cells in healthy donors and about disease associated changes are missing. For example it is currently unknown how big the total fungus-reactive T cell compartment actually is and how these cells are split of into different subsets (e.g. naive versus memory, expression of certain homing receptors, production of the crucial cytokines (e.g. IFN-gamma, IL-17, IL-22, IL-10). Using the invention we could show that these functional subsets can make up only 1-10% of the total reactive T cells (about 0.1% of all CD4 T cells), i.e. 0.001-0.01% of the total CD4 T cells). It is also not known whether in fungus-associated diseases these numbers and/or frequencies are altered.

The term “activation marker” as used herein refers to proteins specifically expressed on the cell surface of T cells following their activation via their specific antigen-receptor, usually within 1-48 hours after activation. Activated T cells may comprise CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells, naïve T cells, memory T cells or regulatory T-cells. Such activation markers are, for example, CD154, CD137, secreted or membrane-anchored cytokines, e.g. IFN-gamma, IL-10, IL-2 TNF-alpha or “latent TGF-beta” (LAP), GARP (LRRC32), CD121a/b.

CD154 is a member of the TNF gene family and, inter alia, is expressed by various cells, particularly by T lymphocytes. CD154 is downregulated by the stimulated T lymphocytes one to three hours after activation. CD154 can be used to detect T lymphocytes independently of their functional potential. The use of CD154 in the detection and separation of T lymphocytes leads to reliable detection and isolation of T lymphocytes, possible independently of their function, i.e. all antigen-specific T lymphocytes in a sample can be determined and separated.

There is also a therapeutic use of antigen-specific T cells following isolation based on their antigen-reactive CD154 expression, which can be induced after in vitro stimulation with defined antigens or antigen mixtures.

A method is disclosed in WO2004/027428 for the detection and/or isolation of antigen-specific T lymphocytes in a suspension following activation with an antigen, in which method the suspension is contacted with a CD40/CD154 system inhibitor, intra- and/or extracellular determination of CD154 is effected, and the cells having CD154 are detected and/or isolated.

Addition of a CD40/CD154 system inhibitor impairs or inhibits the interaction and signalling between CD40 and CD154. CD40/CD154 system inhibitors can be any of molecules or even physical exposures capable of blocking or inhibiting the interaction between CD40 and CD154. Accordingly, the inhibiting agent can be an antibody, e.g. one directed against CD40, a molecule, a cesium or lithium ion having an effect on the interaction between CD40 and CD154. Of course, said agent can also be a substance inhibiting the secretion or endocytosis in the cell, such as brefeldin A (Bref-A). Bref-A inhibits the Golgi apparatus and the secretion of a variety of cytokines. These substances ensure that CD40, CD154, the interaction between the two of them, or the CD40/CD154 system are modified in such a way that CD154 either is no longer downregulated and/or degraded on the cell surface, or, provided it is still within the cell, no longer transported therein. Such interruption of the transport within the cell prevents degradation of CD154. Consequently, CD154 is stabilized inside or outside the cell as an external receptor, thereby allowing detection and subsequent isolation using detection methods well-known to those skilled in the art.

EP appl. no. 10175578 disclosed that the use of CD154 as a negative selection marker greatly increases the window of time for the use of the marker CD137 for the positive selection of regulatory T cells (Treg) and that 2 to 24 hours after activation, regulatory T-cells can be isolated with great purity and yield. Therefore it is possible with the present invention to analyse rare antigen-specific Treg cells using the combination of activation markers CD137 and CD154.

For selection in principle any “parallel” sorting technology can be used. Parallel refers to methods where the selection of the target cells takes place in a single separation step from the bulk population of cells. This includes for example affinity chromatography or any other antibody-dependent separation technique known in the art, which allows parallel processing. Any ligand-dependent separation technique known in the art may be used in conjunction with both positive and negative separation techniques that rely on the physical properties of the cells. In contrast to parallel sorting “single cell technologies” exist, where cells are analysed subsequently one after the other and are very time consuming especially for large cell numbers.

An especially potent parallel sorting technology is magnetic cell sorting. The term “magnetic cell sorting” or “magnetic cell sorting process” is used herein to refer to procedures for cell separation (cell sorting) including, but are not limited to, magnetic separation using antibodies linked to colloidal magnetic particles or micron-sized magnetic particles (e.g. 1-10 μm).

Methods to separate cells magnetically are commercially available e.g. from Invitrogen, Stem cell Technologies, in Cellpro, Seattle or Advanced Magnetics, Boston. For example, autologous monoclonal antibodies can be directly coupled to magnetic polystyrene particles like Dynal M 450 or similar magnetic particles and used e.g. for cell separation. Alternatively, antibodies can be biotinylated or conjugated with digoxigenin and used in conjunction with avidin or anti-digoxigenin coated affinity columns. In a preferred embodiment however, monoclonal antibodies are used in conjunction with colloidal superparamagnetic microparticles having an organic coating by e.g. polysaccharides (Miltenyi et al., 1990). These particles can be used having a size of 10 to 200 nm, preferably between 40 and 100 nm, and can be either directly conjugated to autologous antibodies or used in combination with anti-immunoglobulin, avidin or antihapten-specific microbeads. Polysaccharide-coated superparamagnetic particles are commercially available from Miltenyi Biotec GmbH, Germany.

The term “manipulation” of cells as used herein refers to manipulations or modification of cells, e.g. permeabilisation, intracellular or surface staining procedures. The manipulations can be performed directly on the magnetic columns in parallel to or after the enrichment step of the present inventive method but prior to the cell analysis step. Alternatively manipulations of cells, e.g. fixation of cells can be performed in suspension. If separation of target T cell is combined with an intracellular staining, surface staining can be performed on the first column, followed by fixation and intracellular cytokine staining on the second column.

As used herein, the term “antibody” is intended to include polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies, chimeric antibodies, haptens and antibody fragments, and molecules which are antibody equivalents in that they specifically bind to an epitope on the product antigen. The term “antibody” includes polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies of any isotype (IgA, IgG, IgE, IgD, IgM), or an antigen-binding portion thereof, including, but not limited to, F(ab) and Fv fragments such as sc Fv, single chain antibodies, chimeric antibodies, humanized antibodies, and a Fab expression library.

The cells can be analysed (characterized) after magnetic pre-enrichment according to all methods known to the person skilled in the art. Preferred for the characterization of cells are in particular cell sorting (e.g. further magnetic cell sorting (MACS)), fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS), ELISA, PCR and/or all fluorescence microscopes known in the art. Particularly preferred is the use of flow-cytometry (FACS). For flow-cytometry, e.g. FACS (fluorescence activated cell sorting), antibodies are used that may be coupled with fluorescence markers that are known to a person of skill in the art, like FITC, phycoerythrin (PE), allophycocyanin (APC), cascade yellow and peridinin chlorophyll protein (PerCP).

The target T cells are directly identified and/or separated or isolated from blood, peripheral mononuclear blood cells (PBMC), body tissue or cells from tissue fluids of animals, preferentially mammals such as humans, mouse, rat, sheep or dogs.

The cells are normally identified and/or separated from cell samples from mammals (Mamalia), but especially from humans and preferably from test subject and/or patients. The cells may be derived for example from blood samples which comprise immune cells (peritoneal, cerebral-spinal, pleural and/or synovial body fluids, lavage fluids from hollow organs (airways, lungs), homogenates and aspirates of lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils and/or other lymphatic tissue). The target T cells may also be obtained from animal tissues (e.g. from the spleen or the lymph nodes of an animal).

The separated activated antigen-specific T cells can be used before and/or after cloning and/or growing and/or concentrated in cell mixtures in and/or as pharmaceutical composition in the therapy or prevention of diseases. It is additionally possible for the coding gene sequences of the TCR (T-cell receptor) to be isolated from the separated antigen-specific T cells and be used for further therapeutic purposes such as, for example, for cellular therapies. It is additionally possible to employ the activated antigen-specific T cells in the form mentioned in further investigations and/or analyses. The pharmaceutical composition can be used for the treatment and/or prevention of diseases in mammals, possibly including administration of a pharmaceutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition to the mammal.

The disease may be any disease, which can be treated and/or prevented through the presence of a separated cell and/or through increasing the concentration of the relevant cells in/at the relevant place, or in whole mammalian subjects and/or patients. The cell may be for example an activated rare antigen-specific cell, and the treated and/or preventively treated disease may be an autoimmune disease, an infectious disease, an allergy, transplant versus host disease (or allogeneic transplant rejection) and/or any other disease initiated by hypersensitivity.

Diseases for which the use set forth in the invention is particularly suitable are those arising through and/or during a lack of regulation of the immune response. These diseases may be transplant rejections, allergic conditions, certain infectious diseases, tumors and/or autoimmune diseases.

The invention may be used for obtaining information with prognostic or diagnostic value for certain diseases. In principle changes in the absolute number, the frequency or the phenotype or function of antigen-specific T cells during the course of the disease or in a patient relative to a control cohort may provide this kind of information, since a certain change may be associated with improved or diminished protection or might be indicative for an active disease, i.e. fungus infection. To obtain this information the antigen-specific T cells e.g. from peripheral blood of patients and/or suitable controls can be enriched and analysed as described in the invention and compared to standard values from healthy subjects or other control groups and the results may be used for diagnostic or prognostic purposes. This may comprise the following examples but may not be limited to those:

-   -   1. Invasive Aspergillosis (IA): IA is difficult to diagnose         timely and the information about an altered frequency of         Aspergillus reactive T cells or an altered cytokine pattern         might be indicative for an ongoing IA or a better or worse         chance to clear the infection. Similarly assessing the donors'         Aspergillus-specific repertoire might be indicative for the         chance to develop Aspergillus infection following hematopoietic         stem cell transplantation.     -   2. Colitis: Candida is residing in the gut of healthy         individuals. In inflammatory bowel disease the immune response         against gut residing microbiota or pathogens might be altered         and could be indicative of disease activity or may be a direct         link to the pathogenicity, i.e. inflammatory T cell reactions         against the gut residing organisms supports the inflammation.         E.g. the data provided herein indicate that the response to         Candida is significantly altered in patients with Morbus Crohn.     -   3. Cystic fibrosis: Patients with cystic fibrosis frequently         suffer from fungal infections, especially Aspergillus, in the         lung accompanied by severe allergic reactions. The invention         might be used to identify the patients with acute fungal         infections or allergies against a certain fungus by analysing         the fungus specific T cells response and identify a         characteristic cytokine pattern, e.g. Th2 cytokine production         which is usually not observed in healthy controls     -   4. Allergies: In general allergies might be sensitively         diagnosed by analysing the cytokine pattern of allergen reactive         T cells and/or the frequency/number of allergen reactive T         cells.     -   5. Autoimmunity: Measuring the frequency/phenotype of         autoreactive T cells, e.g. effector versus regulatory-type T         cells, might be indicative for a certain disease activity,         disease course or severity.     -   6. Analysing the naïve repertoire for prognosis for the         development of certain infections, tumors or allergies: the         naïve repertoire against certain infectious agents, tumors or         autoantigens differs in each individual. Obtaining information         about the frequency and phenotype of the specific T cells even         in the non-diseased state might be of prognostic value how the         immune response develops, e.g. success of vaccination against a         certain tumor/allergen/auto-antigen may depend on the frequency         of T cells specific against this antigen in the naïve         compartment. The invention may be used to quantify and         characterize the few reactive T cells against a defined antigen         or specific epitope thereof and may be used for rapid screening         of the most effective therapeutic or prophylactic treatment.

The invention can also be used to separate and analyse T cells recognizing a specific single protein or peptide from Aspergillus or other pathogens resulting in a characterization of potential reactive epitopes in donors. For this goal the sample, e.g. PBMC or other body fluids, is stimulated with a single protein or peptide instead of a lysate prior to enrichment and analysis according to the present invention.

As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural reference unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. For example, reference to a “cell” is a reference to from one to many cells, such as a population of cells, and includes equivalents thereof known to those skilled in the art, and so forth.

As is understood by one skilled in the art, reference to “about” a value or parameter herein includes (and describes) embodiments that are directed to that value or parameter per se. For example, description referring to “about X” includes description of “X”.

It is understood that aspect and variations of the invention described herein include “consisting” and/or “consisting essentially of” aspects and variations.

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Without intending to be limiting, the invention will be illustrated with reference to the following examples.

EXAMPLES Example 1 CD154⁺ Enrichment Increases the Sensitivity of Detection of Antigen-Specific CD4⁺ T Cells

CD154 expression allows the detection of the entire pool of antigen reactive CD4⁺ T cells, without any restriction to a certain subset producing particular cytokines. We therefore used this marker to perform a comprehensive characterization of T cells specific for various viral (Cytomegalovirus, Adenovirus), bacterial (Tetanus toxoid), or fungal (Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans) recall antigens.

Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were stimulated in vitro with lysates of the respective antigens. As shown in FIGS. 1A and B, CD154 expressing CD4⁺ T cells can readily be detected following seven hours stimulation of PBMCs. However, it is also evident that for certain antigens and/or donors the frequencies of antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cells are often below 0.1%, which is in general the limit of detection for standard flow-cytometry. In particular, at frequencies below 0.1% the resulting low total number of positive cells per sample (e.g. <100-1000 cells for sample sizes of 10⁵-10⁶ CD4⁺ T cells) restricts the further dissection into specialized subpopulations. This limits the applicability of this method for many clinically and scientifically relevant situations.

To increase the limit of sensitivity and to enable the analysis of a significant number of antigen-reactive T cells, we made use of the possibility to pre-enrich reactive cells via magnetic selection of CD154⁺ T cells before analysis. In this way, antigen specific T cells from 10⁷-10¹⁰ PBMC can be rapidly analysed. As shown in FIG. 1C, CD154⁺ enrichment resulted in a sizeable population of Aspergillus-reactive cells, allowing the further characterization and detection of even small subpopulations, e.g. producers of certain cytokines.

To determine the sensitivity of our method, we measured the number of enriched CD154⁺ cells with and without antigen stimulation, using different starting cell numbers (FIG. 1D). Interestingly, whereas the number of target cells increased linearly the proportion of background cells declined, resulting in an even superior signal-to-noise ratio at higher cell numbers. With 10⁸ PBMCs about 100-200 CD154⁺ cells were enriched without antigen stimulation. At lower starting cell frequencies (10⁶ to 10⁷) the background numbers ranged between 5-100. These data show that the sensitivity of the method depends on the number of input cells with a detection limit of about 10⁻⁵-10⁻⁶ for 10⁷-10⁸ starting cells.

For an intracellular cytokine staining several washing and centrifugation steps are essential, which result in a decrease of target cells. This target cell loss is especially high in situations where only few target cells can be recovered. Thus the general sensitivity of the method is diminished and furthermore the quantitative determination of target cell numbers and the characterization of small subsets within the target cells are strongly affected. Therefore we developed a method to combine the high sensitivity of the CD154-enrichment with a minimal loss of cells during further characterization by performing all staining procedures directly on a MACS column. In this way, the number of available cells for analysis is strongly increased, when compared to the standard procedure without column staining, which allows more accurate determination of absolute cell numbers as well as a more precise definition and detection of functionally or phenotypically defined T cell subsets within the target population (FIG. 1E).

Additionally, the physiological and systematical background, i.e. the number of CD154⁺ events in the non-stimulated control, determines the detection threshold. Therefore we compared the background levels by acquiring the CD154⁺ cells out of 10⁶ PBMCs with and without pre-enrichment. To optimize the detection and quantification of CD154⁺ events among CD3⁺CD4⁺ T cells, cell aggregates (scatter area versus scatter height) and non-T cell lineages (CD14⁺, CD20⁺, dump) were excluded. Using this optimized staining and analysis strategy, the background without enrichment ranged between 50-200 CD154⁺ cells per 10⁶ counted PBMCs (FIG. 1F), i.e. 0.02-0.07% among CD4⁺ T cells, given an average frequency of 30% CD4⁺ T cells in human PBMCs. In contrast, using the pre-enrichment strategy the background was reduced by a factor of 10, whereas the number of CD154⁺ target cells was only half decreased. Despite a strong donor-to-donor variation, this resulted in a considerably improved signal-to-noise ratio of about 5-50 fold with enrichment versus 2-10 fold without enrichment (FIG. 1G). In addition, the CD154⁺ pre-enrichment showed a minimal intra-assay variability as shown by comparably recovered CD154⁺ cell numbers from different input cell numbers stimulated in triplicates and a linear correlation between isolated target cells and the input cell number over a wide range (10⁶-10⁸ PBMCs) (FIG. 1H).

Detailed Description of the FIG. 1

PBMCs were stimulated for with the indicated lysates and analyzed for CD154 expression. CD154⁺ cells among CD4⁺ (bold) or among total lymphocytes (italics) are shown of (A) one representative donor and (B) of several donors with indicated mean. (C) Magnetically enrichment of CD154⁺ T cells followed by intracellular cytokine staining. CD154 expression was assessed among CD4⁺ T cells after stimulation (upper plots) and after MACS sorting (lower plots). Numbers in brackets indicate the number of CD154⁺ cells after acquiring 2×10⁵ PBMCs (upper plots) or obtained from 1×10⁷ PBMCs after enrichment (lower plots). (D) Determination of the detection limit of the assay. The total number of enriched CD154⁺ cells from different starting cell numbers of Aspergillus- or non-stimulated PBMCs is shown (n=5). (E) CD154⁺ cell numbers out of 10⁷ PBMCs after Aspergillus stimulation performing intracellular cytokine staining either on the MACS column or after separation (n=30). Significance was determined using unpaired Student's t-test. (F, G) Comparison of the CD154⁺ enrichment assay with standard flow counting using 1×10⁶ starting PBMCs (n=20). (F) CD154⁺ cell numbers of non-stimulated or A. fumigatus stimulated samples. To optimize the detection and quantification of CD154⁺ events among CD3⁺CD4⁺ T cells, cell aggregates (scatter area versus scatter height) and non-T cell lineages (CD14⁺, CD20⁺, dump) were excluded. (G) Signal-to-noise ratio was calculated based on CD154⁺ cell numbers in A. fumigatus stimulated and non-stimulated PBMCs. Significance was determined using paired Student's t-test. (H) Intra-assay variability of the recovered CD154⁺ cell numbers. Different PBMC starting cell numbers from two donors were stimulated in triplicates with A. fumigatus lysate and recovered CD154⁺ cell numbers were analyzed after performing the CD154⁺ enrichment assay. Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to calculate correlations (p<0.0001).

Preparation of Fungal Extracts

The A. fumigatus strain ATCC 46645 (LGC Standars, Wesel, Germany) was used for preparation of crude protein extracts from mycelium. Conidia were inoculated at a final concentration of 2·10⁶ spores/ml in YPD medium and shaken at 37° C. with 200 rpm. After 20 hours incubation, mycelium was recovered by filtration, washed with water and stored at −70° C. Frozen mycelium was resuspended in saline (0.9% [w/v] NaCl) and disrupted in a microdismembrator (Sartorius, Gottingen, Germany) at 200 rpm for 10 min using 0.5 Ø mm glass beads. The extract was resuspended in PBS (2 mM MgCl₂) and centrifuged for 20 min at 20000×g. Supernatants were stored in aliquots at −20° C. until use.

Stimulation of Human PBMCs and Isolation of Antigen-Specific T Cells

Buffy coats from healthy donors were obtained from the university hospital in Dortmund. Peripheral blood samples were obtained from healthy volunteers and 31 patients with Crohn's disease, 9 patients with ulcerative colitis, 8 patients with cystic fibrosis and 17 patients with hematologic malignancies. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were separated by use of Ficoll-Hypaque (GE-Healthcare Bio-Science) density gradient centrifugation, washed twice in CliniMACS buffer (Miltenyi Biotec) and resuspended in RPMI-1640 (Miltenyi Biotec), supplemented with 5% (v/v) inactivated human AB-serum (Lonza) and 2 mM L-glutamine (PAA Laboratories). Stimulations in all experiments were performed with the same concentrations of antigens: A. fumigatus, A. terreus, A. nidulans, A. niger, R. oryzae, S. Scedosporium, A. corymbifera (40 μg/ml), C. albicans (20 μg/ml; Greer Laboratories), CMV-lysate (10 μg/ml; Siemens), tetanus-toxoid (10 μg/ml; Statens Serum Institute), or peptide pools of CMV pp65, AdV Hexon (0.6 nmol/ml; both Miltenyi Biotec), E. coli recombinant proteins (50 μg/ml), SEB (1 μg/ml; Sigma Aldrich) in the presence of 1 μg/ml CD28 functional grade pure antibody (Miltenyi Biotec). Each setting contained a non-stimulated sample as negative control.

For separation of antigen-specific T cells, 1×10⁷ PBMCs/ml were stimulated for 7 hours with the different antigens at 37° C. in a 5% (v/v) CO₂ atmosphere. To prevent down-regulation of CD154 expression, 1 μg/ml CD40 functional grade pure antibody (Miltenyi Biotec) was added. If separation of antigen-specific T cell was combined with an intracellular staining, 1 μg/ml Brefeldin A (Sigma Aldrich) was added for the last 2 hours of stimulation.

After stimulation, cells were separated using the CD154 MicroBead Kit (Miltenyi Biotec). In brief, cells were indirectly magnetically labelled with CD154-Biotin and anti-Biotin microbeads in a titer of 1:10 and enriched by two MS MACS columns (Miltenyi Biotec). For characterization of phenotypic markers, surface staining was performed on the second column in a total staining volume of 100 μl. If separation of antigen-specific T cell was combined with an intracellular staining, surface staining was performed on the first column, followed by fixation and intracellular cytokine staining on the second column. Cells were eluted from the first column with 500 μl of buffer and 500 μl InsideFix (Inside stain Kit; Miltenyi Biotec) was added for 20 min at room temperature. The fixed cell suspension was applied onto a second MS MACS column, washed with InsidePerm (Inside stain Kit; Miltenyi Biotec) and stained intracellular in a total volume of 100 μl.

Example 2 CD154⁺ Enrichment Specifically Identifies Antigen-Reactive T Cells

To exclude non-specific stimulation by fungal components potentially present in the total antigen lysates we blocked the T cell activation by addition of an HLA-DR-neutralising antibody. This antibody blocked the CD4⁺ T cell responses against Aspergillus-, Candida- and CMV-lysates as well as against a peptide pool of CMV pp65 but neither T cell activation by SEB and antiCD3/CD28 (FIG. 2A) nor the activation of CD8⁺ T cells (not depicted). Similarly, the CD4⁺ T cell responses against the lysates but not against the pp65 peptide pool were prevented when APCs were fixed with formaldehyde before incubation with the antigens (FIG. 2B). These data clearly show that T cell activation against native antigens occurs through an MHC class II- and antigen processing-dependent mechanism.

To further confirm the specificity of the antigen activated CD154⁺ cells, we used the CD154⁺ enrichment for the rapid generation of polyclonal Aspergillus- and Candida-specific T cell lines. Following stimulation with Aspergillus- or Candida-lysate, the CD154⁺ T cells were magnetically isolated and further expanded in the presence of autologous feeder cells and IL-2. To determine frequencies and functionalities, the T cell lines were re-stimulated with autologous APCs and the indicated antigens. The expanded T cells show high reactivity towards the inducing antigen (>60%), as shown by up-regulation of CD154 and expression of cytokines (FIG. 2C). Furthermore we observed high cross-reactivity of Aspergillus fumigatus-specific T cell lines with Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus niger. A small proportion of Aspergillus-reactive T cells also reacted to Candida albicans antigens and vice versa, as well as other fungi (<3%), such as Absidia corymbifera, Rhizopus oryzae or Scedosporium apiospermum. In contrast, the reactivity against CMV lysate was at background level. These data suggest that there is limited overlap between antigens from various fungal species. In addition, different recall antigen activated CD154⁺ T cells were magnetically isolated, expanded and subsequently re-stimulated with autologous APCs and the indicated antigens (FIG. 2D). The expanded T cells showed high reactivity towards the inducing antigen (30-60%), as demonstrated by the up-regulation of CD154 and expression of cytokines, whereas reactivity against irrelevant antigens was at background level.

These data confirm the high-specificity of the CD154⁺ enrichment assay and demonstrate that specific T cell lines or clones can rapidly be generated for all tested antigens.

Detailed Description of the FIG. 2

(A) Inhibition of the CD154 induction by an antiHLA-DR blocking antibody. PBMCs of pp65-tetramer positive donors were stimulated with the indicated antigens in the presence or absence of antiHLA-DR mAb and the number of CD154⁺ T cells after enrichment (left) or the frequencies of CD154⁺ T cells without enrichment (right) were analyzed. Bars show mean percentages and SEM from 4 donors referring to samples without antiHLA-DR. Two independent experiments were performed. (B) CD3⁺ T cells and CD3⁻ APCs were separated from PBMCs of pp 65 tetramer positive donors. Stimulation was performed under the indicated conditions and the number of CD154⁺ T cells after enrichment was analyzed. Bars indicate mean percentages and SEM of CD154⁺ cells referring to live APCs+antigen stimulated samples from 3 different donors. (C) PBMCs of CMV sero-positive donors were stimulated with Aspergillus- or Candida-lysate. Antigen-reactive CD154⁺ cells were isolated and subsequently expanded for 14 days with IL-2 and autologous feeder cells. Expanded cell lines were re-stimulated in presence of autologous APCs with and without antigens as indicated, and reactive CD4⁺ T cells were determined by CD154 and TNF-α expression. Data of one representative donor out of 7 with percentage of reactive cells among CD4⁺ are shown. (D) PBMCs were stimulated with the indicated recall antigens. CD154⁺ cells were isolated and subsequently expanded. Expanded cell lines were re-stimulated with and without antigens as indicated, and reactive CD4⁺ T cells were analyzed by CD154 and TNF-α expression. Representative dot plot examples of one donor out of five with percentage of reactive cells among CD4⁺ lymphocytes are shown.

HLA-DR Blocking Experiments and Fixation of APCs

For inhibition experiments, 1×10⁷ PBMCs from CMV sero-positive donors were stimulated with A. fumigatus-, C. albicans-, CMV-lysate as described above, or CMV pp 65 PepTivator (0.6 nmol/ml; Miltenyi Biotec), SEB (1 μg/ml; Sigma Aldrich), anti-CD3/CD28 (Miltenyi Biotec) in presence or absence of an HLA-DR specific mAb (100 μg/ml clone AC122; Miltenyi Biotec). CD154⁺ T cells were isolated, as described above, using the CD154⁺ MicroBead Kit (Miltenyi Biotec) and the number of CD154⁺ cells after enrichment or the frequencies of CD154⁺ cells after stimulation (SEB, antiCD3/CD28) was analyzed by flow cytometry.

For antigen-processing experiments, T cells and APCs were separated from PBMCs using an untouched isolation with the pan T cell isolation Kit II (Miltenyi Biotec) and depletion of CD3⁺ T cells via anti-CD3 microbeads (Miltenyi Biotec), respectively. Both fractions reached a purity>99%. CD3-depleted APCs were either loaded over night with different antigens or left unloaded, respectively. Loaded and unloaded APCs were fixed in 0.18% (v/v) paraformaldehyde in CliniMACS buffer (Miltenyi Biotec) for 5 min at RT and then washed extensively in RPMI-1640 medium. 5×10⁶ APCs were used for the stimulation of 5×10⁶ T cells. After stimulation, CD154 expressing cells were separated, as described above, and analyzed by flow cytometry. The number of enriched CD154⁺ cells was compared with the control using non-fixed APCs plus antigens for stimulation.

Expansion and Re-Stimulation of Antigen-Specific T Cells

Stimulation of 1×10⁷ PBMCs with different antigens and isolation of CD154⁺ cells was performed as described above. Isolated CD154⁺ cells were cultured with mitomycin C (Sigma Aldrich) treated autologous feeder cells in a ratio of 1:100 at a density of 2.5×10⁶ cells/cm² in 48-well plates in X-Vivol5 (Lonza), supplemented with 5% (v/v) AB-serum (Lonza), 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 μg/ml streptomycin (Invitrogen) and 200 IU/ml IL-2 (Proleukin; Novartis). Cells were expanded for 14 days at 37° C. in a humidified 5% (v/v) CO₂-containing atmosphere, culture medium was replenished and cells were split, when needed. After 7 and 14 days of expansion, cell numbers of the T cell lines were determined by flow cytometry.

For re-stimulation, autologous PBMCs were CD3-depleted with a purity>99% using anti-CD3 microbeads and LD MACS columns (Miltenyi Biotec). CD3-depleted PBMCs were cryo-preservated until re-stimulation of expanded T cell lines at day 14.

For re-stimulation, 5×10⁵ expanded T cells were combined with 5×10⁵ thawed autologous CD3-depleted PBMCs and stimulated with different antigens, in presence of 1 μg/ml CD28 functional grade pure Ab for 2+4 h (Bref-A). After fixation and permeabilization cells were stained intracellular for CD154 and cytokine expression.

Example 3 Phenotypic and Functional Characterization of Pathogen-Reactive CD4⁺ T Cells

Until now, the cytometric analysis of antigen-reactive T cells using cytokines or activation markers as a read-out was mainly restricted to the analysis of the memory T cell pool, because the frequency of naïve T cells was below the level of detection. For this reason, we also analyzed the phenotype of antigen-reactive T cells following CD154^(k) enrichment. As expected, C. albicans, CMV, AdV and tetanus stimulated T cells mainly belonged to the CD45RO⁺ memory T cells (FIG. 3A, B) and were distributed between the CD45RO⁺CCR7⁺ central memory and CD45RO⁺CCR7⁻ effector T cell subset, depending on the pathogen. C. albicans-reactive T cells were found to be mainly within the central memory compartment, whereas CMV generates a strong effector memory phenotype. For A. fumigatus, AdV and tetanus the distribution between the two subsets was less uniform but displayed strong donor dependent variability. Interestingly, 20-70% of A. fumigatus-reactive T cells were CD45RO⁻ and were indeed bona fide naïve T cells, since they expressed CD45RA, CD27 (data not shown) and high levels of CCR7 but they did not secrete effector cytokines, like IFN-γ or IL-17 (FIG. 3C). Naïve T cells were also detectable in the responses against the other tested pathogens, with intermediate levels (2-20%) for C. albicans and AdV and only low to undetectable levels (0-5%) for tetanus and CMV.

The quality of an immune response is not only affected by the frequency or absolute number of the antigen-specific cells but also by their function. In most situations the specific T cell pool is not uniform but can be split up in various functional subsets, which further potentiates the need for an sensitive assay. Therefore, we used the CD154⁺ pre-selection to analyze the cytokine profiles of antigen-specific T cells reactive against the various recall antigens directly ex vivo. Cytokines, which are not restricted to a certain T cell lineage, e.g. IL-2 or TNF-α, occurred at high frequencies (up to 85%) in the T cell responses against all analyzed antigens. However, certain lineage-defining cytokines, which are important parameters for the classification of T helper cell responses, show much higher variability (FIG. 4A, B). These cytokine-producing subpopulations may represent only 1-10% out of the total antigen-specific T cells, i.e. for the pathogens analysed here 0.0001-0.1% of the total antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cell compartment (FIG. 4B, first diagram). To estimate the size of such small subpopulations with sufficient statistical significance, a minimal number of events have to be analyzed. As depicted in FIG. 4A, the magnetic pre-selection allows the collection of a sufficient number of antigen-reactive T cells, enabling the identification of small cytokine producing subsets, down to 1-10% within the reactive CD4⁺ T cell pool with high precision. For example, the CD154-enrichment allowed the first direct visualization and enumeration of CD4⁺ T cells reactive against fungal pathogens and enabled their further dissection into small functional subsets. Although T_(H)17 responses are often regarded as prototypic for fungal pathogens, we show here, that the response against A. fumigatus is in contrast to C. albicans more of a T_(H)1 phenotype, with production of IFN-γ but only low IL-17 and IL-22 levels. However, a small but significant proportion of IL-22 producers (1-3%) were present within the A. fumigatus- or AdV-specific CD4⁺ T cells, but completely absent in CMV- and tetanus-reactive T cell responses. In addition, small frequencies (1-4%) of IL-17 producers were found against A. fumigatus- and tetanus but not against CMV. Several other functionally important effector T cell cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-13) were mostly in the range between 1 to 5% for all antigens. However, IL-10 producers were more dominant within the A. fumigatus-specific cells, whereas T_(H)2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, IL-13) were mainly found against tetanus. Interestingly, also against CMV low frequencies of IL-4 and IL-10 producers could be clearly detected.

Taken together, the refined subpopulation analysis reveals, that in addition to the major cytokine producing subsets the detection of rare cytokine producing T cells allows to identify pathogen-specific signatures. Our results emphasize further, that the CD154⁺ enrichment method can reveal subtle differences for classification of T cell responses against various pathogens or antigens. This would not have been technically feasible with conventional flow-cytometry.

Detailed Description of FIG. 3

Enriched CD154⁺ T cells were ex vivo analyzed for the expression of CD45RO and CCR7. Cells are gated on CD4⁺CD154⁺ lymphocytes. (A) Representative dot plot examples for surface staining with percentages of cells among CD154⁺ cells and cell count (in brackets). (B) Summary of several donors (A. fumigatus, C. albicans n=18, CMV n=22, AdV n=10, tetanus n=12) with statistical significance of mean values, as determined by paired Student's t-test. (C) Percentage of cytokine-expressing cells among the indicated phenotypic subsets gated on CD4⁺CD154⁺ T cells are shown for several donors, with horizontal lines indicating mean values. Three independent experiments were performed.

Detailed Description of FIG. 4

Flow cytometric ex vivo analysis of cytokine expressing subsets within antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cell responses. 1×10⁷ PBMCs were stimulated with the indicated antigens, and antigen-specific T cells were analyzed for cytokine expression using the CD154⁺ enrichment assay. Cells were gated on CD4⁺ lymphocytes and percentages of cytokine-expressing cells among CD154⁺ T cells are shown. (A) Representative dot plot examples and (B) statistical analysis from several donors with indicated mean values (n=5, two independent experiments were performed). Frequencies of antigen-specific T cells (first diagram) were calculated from the total number of CD154⁺ cells obtained after enrichment normalized to the total number of CD4⁺ cells applied on the column.

Intracellular cytokine staining and characterization of phenotype by flow cytometry

PBMCs were stimulated and antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cells were isolated as described above. For phenotypic analysis enriched cells were stained with following mAbs (clone names in parentheses) according to manufacturer's protocols: antiBiotin-PE, antiBiotin-VioBlue (Bio3-18E7), CD4-Vioblue, CD4-FITC (VIT4), CD27-FITC, CD27-APC (M-T271), CD45RA-FITC (T6D11), CD45RO-APC (UCHL1) (Miltenyi Biotec), CCR7-PE (150503; R&D Systems), CD45RA-PerCP.Cy5.5 (HI100; Biolegend), CD45RO-FITC (UCHL-1; BD Pharmingen), CD45RO-PE.Cy7 (UCHL-1), CD4-PE.Cy7 (SK3) (BD Bioscience). After fixation and permeablization (Inside stain Kit; Miltenyi Biotec), CD154-expression was stained intracellular with CD154-VioBlue, CD154-APC, CD154-PE (5C8; Miltenyi Biotec), CD154-Allophycocyanin-eFluor780 (24-31; eBioscience), CD154-FITC (TRAP1; BD Pharmigen) alone, or in combination with different cytokines: TNFα-FITC (cA2), IFNγ-APC, IFNγ-FITC, IFNγ-PE (45-15), IL2-PE (N7.48A), IL4-PE (7A3-3), IL5-APC (JES1-39D10), IL10-APC (B-T10), IL13-PE (JES10-5A2.2), IL17-FITC(CZ8-23G1) (Miltenyi Biotec), IL22-PE (142928; R&D systems), IL22-PerCP.Cy5.5 (22URTI; eBiosecience), IFNγ-PerCP.Cy5.5 (4S.B3; BioLegend). Data were acquired on a MACSQuant analyzer and MACSQuantify software (Miltenyi Biotec) was used for analysis.

Example 4 Increased Frequencies of Aspergillus-Reactive T Cells in Patients with Invasive Aspergillosis

Aspergillus infections can be life threatening in immuno-compromised patients but so far only few diagnostic or prognostic immune-parameters exist. We used our assay in hematologic patients, which are at high risk for invasive Aspergillosis, to analyse whether changes in frequency or phenotype and function can be identified. In this patient group the frequency of CD4⁺ T cells can be massively altered, making the analysis of reactive cells by population-based assays, e.g. ELISA or ELISPOT, very imprecise. Therefore we used CD154-enrichment to directly isolate and quantitate the few fungus-reactive T cells. The frequency (FIG. 5A) as well as cytokine pattern (data not shown) of Aspergillus-reactive T cells within the CD4⁺ T cell compartment is in the same range as in the healthy control group. However, due to the low frequency of CD4⁺ T cells in patient's peripheral blood the absolute numbers of Aspergillus-reactive T cells are almost 1-2 log reduced (FIG. 5B). Interestingly, samples from two patients showed markedly increased frequencies of reactive T cells after Aspergillus stimulation and in fact these two patients were diagnosed for invasive Aspergillosis (FIG. 5A).

From one patient with diagnosed IA we had the opportunity to analyse several samples over a time period of 5 weeks. Throughout the observation period, the frequency of reactive T cells was variable but at 3 of 6 time points clearly higher than normal control values (0.5-0.8%) (FIG. 5A, C). Despite the low absolute number of reactive T cells we could also determine the frequency of IFN-γ and IL-10 producers, since the IFN-γ/IL-10 ratio has previously been described as a prognostic parameter. Interestingly, especially IL-10 production was variable over time but directly correlated with the frequencies of Aspergillus-reactive T cells (FIG. 5C). This suggests that the IFN-γ/IL-10 ratio as well as the total frequency of reactive cells may reflect an oscillating T cell response against Aspergillus in infected patients.

Detailed Description of FIG. 5

(A) Frequencies of Aspergillus-reactive T cells in peripheral blood of healthy donors (n=55) versus hematologic patients (n=17). Patients frequencies were calculated with the number of enriched CD154⁺ T cells and the number of stimulated CD4⁺ input cells. Two patients with proven invasive Aspergillosis are depicted as white triangle and white circle, respectively. (B) Number of Aspergillus-reactive T cells per ml peripheral blood in hematologic patients. The range of healthy donors is marked in grey. (C) Kinetics of the Aspergillus-specific T cell response in one patient with proven invasive Aspergillosis (white triangle in figure A, B). The frequency of reactive cells (dotted line; right axis) as well as the IFN-γ/IL-10 ratio (dark line; left axis) and percentage of IFN-γ (dark grey) and IL-10 (light grey) producers among CD154+ (lower graph) were determined over a time period of 33 days.

Example 5 Crohn's Disease Patients Show Elevated Responsiveness and IL-22 Production Against Candida

In patients with inflammatory bowel diseases an increased T cell reactivity against gut microbiota has been described. Since Candida is a common member of the gut microbiota, we hypothesized, that the Candida-reactive CD4⁺ T cell repertoire could be altered in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Interestingly, patients with Crohn's disease (CD) showed a significant increase in the frequencies of Candida- as well as E. coli-reactive cells compared to healthy controls with a mean of 0.52% (p<0.0001) and 0.26% (p=0.0049) (FIG. 6A). Further analysis of the cytokine production of Candida-reactive T cells revealed that IL-22 production was significantly increased in reactive cells from CD patients (FIG. 6B, C). Furthermore, some patients showed a markedly higher amount of IFN-γ producers and reduction of IL-17 producers, as compared to healthy donors, although these differences did not reach the level of significance. In addition, we found a significant decrease of IFN-γ producers in response to E. Coli. We further analysed whether reactivity to Candida correlates with clinical disease parameters. Indeed we found that patients with increased C-reactive protein serum levels are exclusively contained within the group of Candida high-responders (>0.4% CD154⁺; FIG. 6D).

Detailed Description of FIG. 6

(A) Frequencies of Candida-reactive T cells in peripheral blood of healthy donors (n=55) versus patients with Crohn's disease (n=31) or ulcerative colitis (n=9) as well as E. Coli-reactive T cells (healthy n=9, CD n=13, CU n=5). Significance was determined using unpaired Student's t-test. (B) Cytokine production of Candida-reactive T cells from one representative CD patient. Percentage of cytokine producing cells among CD154⁺ cells is indicated. (C) Summary of cytokine production from several patients compared to healthy controls with statistical significance of mean values, as determined by unpaired Student's t-test. (D) C-reactive protein serum levels of Candida high-responders (>0.4% CD154⁺; n=16) versus low-responders (<0.4% CD154; n=11). Significance was determined using unpaired Student's t-test.

Example 6 In Some Patients with Cystic Fibrosis, the Aspergillus-Reactive T Cell Response is Biased Towards a T_(H)2 Cytokine Pattern

Patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) are characterized by an impaired mucociliary clearance, which can result in chronic colonisation with opportunistic pathogens, leading to allergic sensitation. For Aspergillus an increased IL-4 and IL-13 production has been described in patients with CF. We therefore analyzed the cytokine pattern of Aspergillus-reactive T cells from CF patients by our method. Indeed we found a strong expression of the T_(H)2 cytokines IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 for some patients, comprising for up to 50% of the total Aspergillus-reactive T cell response, whereas other patients showed no alterations compared to healthy controls (FIG. 7A, B). In addition, the expression of IFN-γ was significantly reduced in patients with a T_(H)2 profile, whereas the expression of IL-10 as well as other cytokines did not differ (FIG. 7B).

Taken together the analysis of three patient groups affected by fungal infections demonstrates that the sensitive analysis of fungus-reactive T cells based on CD154-enrichment is suitable to identify even subtle disease-associated alterations in the quantity and/or quality of antigen-specific T cells. Furthermore, our data highlight the possibility that monitoring fungus-specific T cell responses in patients may indeed be of diagnostic or prognostic value.

Detailed Description of FIG. 7

(A) Representative example of the Aspergillus-specific cytokine expression from one CF patient. Percentages of cytokine producing cells among CD154⁺ cells are indicated. (B) Summary of cytokine profiles from CF patients with T_(H)2 profile (n=4), without T_(H)2 profile (n=4) and healthy controls (n=9). Significance was determined using unpaired Student's t-test.

Example 7 Enrichment and Characterization of Antigen-Specific Regulatory T Cells Via CD137

The combination of CD154 and CD137 can be used for the selection of antigen-specific Treg cells (EP appl. no. 10175578). Therefore we used the present invention to enrich and characterize CD137 expressing antigen-specific T cells. Stimulation with Aspergillus, Candida and CMV resulted in an increased expression of CD137 on CD25⁺FoxP3⁺ regulatory T cells (FIG. 8A). To further characterize these cells, antigen specific T cells were isolated according to CD154 and CD137 expression and stained for the regulatory T cell markers CD25 and FoxP3. As shown in FIG. 8B, CD137 enrichment resulted in a sizable population of Treg cells, whereas within the CD154⁺ population CD25⁺FoxP3⁺ cells could only marginally be detected. Next, we analyzed the cytokine expression of CD154 versus CD137 expressing cells by intracellular staining following combined magnetic pre-selection. As shown in FIGS. 8C and D, only CD154-expressing T cells produced cytokines after antigen stimulation, whereas CD137⁺ cells showed nearly no cytokine production. These results demonstrate that our method can be used for the detection and characterization of antigen-specific Tregs, as well as to define major differences compared to conventional T cells.

To proof specificity of the antigen-reactive Tregs, CD137⁺ T cells were enriched following Aspergillus stimulation and subsequently expanded for 3 weeks in the presence of high doses of IL-2 and rapamycin. As a control we used polyclonal expanded CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127⁻ Tregs. The expanded Tregs were re-stimulated with autologous APCs and the indicated antigens and analyzed for the expression of activation markers. As shown in FIGS. 9A and B, Aspergillus-specific Tregs specifically reacted against the inducing antigen, as well as SEB as a high control, whereas polyclonal Tregs only reacted against SEB.

Next, we analyzed the suppressive capacity of the expanded Aspergillus-reactive Tregs. To this end, expanded Treg cells and autologous APCs were combined with proliferation dye labelled allogeneic responder CD4⁺ T cells in different ratios, as indicated. To activate the Treg cells, the co-cultures were either stimulated antigen-specific with Aspergillus lysate or polyclonal with CD3/CD28 beads and after six days the percentage of proliferating responder cells was analyzed. As shown in FIG. 9C, Aspergillus-specific Tregs strongly suppressed allogeneic proliferation, whereas polyclonal Tregs reached the same suppressive capacity only after activation with CD3/CD28 beads. By contrast, using Aspergillus-specific CD154⁺ T cell lines as a control, showed no inhibition of proliferation following CD3/CD28 stimulation and only modest inhibition after Aspergillus stimulation, probably due to the massive expansion of the antigen-specific CD154⁺ cells and competition for nutrients.

Taken together these results demonstrate the specificity and suppressive capacities of the CD137⁺ enriched regulatory T cells, and confirm, that CD137⁺ enrichment can be used for the characterization of antigen-specific Treg cells.

Detailed Description of FIG. 8

(A) PBMCs were stimulated with the indicated antigens and analysed for CD137-expression among CD4⁺CD25⁺FoxP3⁺ T cells. Dot plot example for one representative donor out of 40 is shown. (B) Magnetically enrichment of CD154⁺ and CD137⁺ T cells followed by CD25 and FoxP3 staining. Percentage of CD25⁺FoxP3⁺ T cells among enriched CD154⁺ or CD137⁺ is indicated. (C) Representative dot plot examples and (D) statistical analysis for intracellular cytokine staining of CD154⁺ or CD137⁺ cells after combined enrichment. Numbers indicated percentage of cytokine positive cells among activation marker positive CD4⁺ cells.

Detailed Description of FIG. 9

Expanded regulatory T cells were re-stimulated with the indicated antigens and analyzed for expression of CD137 and CD154. (A) Representative dot plot examples of Aspergillus-specific Tregs from one donor with percentages of activation marker positive cells among CD4⁺ lymphocytes. (B) Statistical analysis of Aspergillus-specific or polyclonal Tregs from several donors showing percentage of CD137⁺ cells among CD4⁺ lymphocytes. (C) Suppression assay with expanded Aspergillus-reactive Tregs (black solid line, n=11), polyclonal Tregs (light grey dotted line, n=11) or Aspergillus-reactive CD154⁺ T cell lines (dark grey dotted line, n=7). Percentage of inhibition of allogeneic proliferation at different Treg: Tresponder ratios are indicated.

Combined Isolation of Antigen-Specific CD137⁺ and CD154⁺ T Cells and FoxP3 Staining

For separation of antigen-specific T cells, 1×10⁷ PBMCs/ml were stimulated with the different antigens at 37° C. in a 5% (v/v) CO₂ atmosphere. To prevent down-regulation of CD154 expression, 1 μg/ml CD40 functional grade pure antibody (Miltenyi Biotec) was added. If separation of antigen-specific T cell was combined with an intracellular staining, 1 μg/ml Brefeldin A (Sigma Aldrich) was added for the last 2 hours of stimulation.

After stimulation, cells were separated using the CD154 MicroBead Kit and the CD137 MicroBead Kit (Miltenyi Biotec). In brief, cells were indirectly magnetically labelled with CD154-Biotin and anti-Biotin microbeads as well as CD137-PE and anti-PE microbeads in each case with a titer of 1:10 and enriched by two MS MACS columns (Miltenyi Biotec). For characterization of phenotypic markers, surface staining was performed onto the second column. For FoxP3 and cytokine staining, surface marker-stained cells were fixed, permeabilized, and stained intra-nuclear for FoxP3 and cytokines using FoxP3 staining kit (MiltenyiBiotec) according to manufacturer's instructions.

Expansion of Regulatory T Cell Lines

For expansion of Aspergillus-reactive Tregs, CD137⁺ cells were enriched via CD137-PE and anti-PE microbeads. Polyclonal Tregs were isolated using the CD4⁺CD25⁺CD127⁻ Treg isolation kit (Miltenyi Biotec). 1×10⁴ CD137⁺ cells or 1×10⁵ polyclonal Tregs were cultures in 96-well round bottom plates in X-Vivol5 (Lonza), supplemented with 5% (v/v) AB-serum (Lonza), 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 μg/ml streptomycin (Invitrogen), 1000 IU/ml IL-2 (Proleukin; Novartis) and 30 nM Rapamycin. For polyclonal Tregs 4:1 (bead:cell ratio) Treg expansion beads (Miltenyi Biotec) were added. Cells were expanded for 21 days, culture medium was replenished every second day and cells were split, when needed.

For re-stimulation, 5×10⁵ expanded T cells were combined with 5×10⁵ thawed autologous CD3-depleted PBMCs and stimulated with different antigens, in presence of 1 μg/ml CD28 functional grade pure Ab for 2+4 h (Bref-A). After fixation and permeabilization cells were stained for activation marker and FoxP3 expression.

Suppression Assays

Expanded Treg cells and autologous CD3-depleted APCs were co-cultured in different ratios with VioletDye (Invitrogen)-labeled isolated allogeneic CD4⁺ T cells as responder cells in 48-well plates and stimulated either with Aspergillus lysate or CD3/CD28 beads (Treg suppression Inspector, Miltenyi Biotec). Proliferation of the responder CD4⁺ T cells was analyzed after day 6 by flow cytometry.

Example 9 Enrichment of Auto-/Tumor-Associated Antigen-Reactive T Cells from Peripheral Blood of Healthy Donors

The possibility to access antigen-specific T cells even in the naïve repertoire prompted us to extend our study to the analysis of the human T cell repertoire reactive against auto-, tumor-associated and neo-antigens, which have so far escaped direct quantitative and qualitative characterization. Certain auto-antigens have been described to be strongly expressed in certain tumor cells, e.g. Melan A, WT-1 and NY-ESO. Characterization of the response towards these antigens in healthy persons or tumor patients might be important to predict the outcome of the anti-tumor response or may be used to identify certain antigens/epitopes, e.g, which have already high precursor frequency, which may predict the success of anti-tumor vaccination with a certain antigen.

We used the CD154⁺ enrichment to analyze T cell responses of healthy donors against peptide-pools of 6 different auto- (MOG, GAD), tumor-associated (NY-ESO, WT-1) or neo-antigens (KLH, HIV Gag) and MP65, a major C. albicans antigen, as a positive control. Without enrichment, no CD154⁴ T cells against the auto- and neo-antigens were detectable within 5×10⁵ acquired PBMCs, whereas MP65-reactive T cells were immediately detected with a frequency of about 1 in 10⁴ CD4⁺ T cells (range 10⁻³-10⁻⁵) (FIG. 10A). However, following the enrichment from 10⁸ stimulated PBMCs, reactive T cells against all antigens were clearly detected in all donors tested, with frequencies ranging from <10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁴ (FIG. 10A, B). The frequencies of T cells differed between the various antigens but for a particular antigen rather small donor to donor variation was observed. Surprisingly, we found similar frequencies (10⁻⁵ to 10⁻⁴) against the auto-antigens, MOG and GAD and the neo-antigens KLH and HIV Gag. However, the frequencies against the tumor-associated antigens NY-ESO and WT-1 were about tenfold lower (10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁵). Further phenotypical analysis of the enriched CD154⁺ cells revealed that a large fraction of the T cells reactive against the auto-, tumor-associated- or neo-antigens indeed have a naïve phenotype (40-60%, CD45RO⁻CCR7⁺) whereas MP65-specific CD4⁺ T cells were mainly memory cells (80-90%, FIG. 10C, D). These data demonstrate that the CD154⁺ enrichment can be used to monitor the human naïve antigen-reactive T cell repertoire. The data also indicate that even in healthy donors a significant fraction of the autoimmune repertoire has a clear memory phenotype, which suggests a role for cross-reactivity against external antigens for priming of auto-reactive T cells even in a healthy individual.

To confirm specificity of the CD4⁺ T cells reactive against auto-, tumor-associated- and neo-antigens within the naïve as well as in memory compartment, reactive cells were enriched from highly purified naïve and memory CD4⁺ T cells, expanded for 14 days and tested for specificity by antigen re-stimulation. As shown in FIGS. 10E and F, expanded T cells from the naïve as well as from the memory population specifically reacted against the inducing antigen. Interestingly, for the auto-, tumor-associated- and neo-antigens, but not for the recall antigen MP65, the frequency of specific T cells within the expanded T cell lines was higher for T cell lines generated from naïve T cells versus memory derived cell lines. This may indicate lower affinity or reduced proliferative potential of self-reactive T cells within the memory pool. However, these data clearly confirm our ex vivo phenotypic observations and demonstrate the applicability of CD154⁺ enrichment for the direct ex vivo detection, enumeration and characterization of antigen-specific T cell populations, undetectable by standard assays.

Detailed Description of FIG. 10

(A) 1×10⁸ PBMCs were stimulated as indicated and CD154⁺ expression among CD4⁺ T cells was analyzed without enrichment (upper plots) and after performing the CD154⁺ enrichment assay (lower plots). Indicated are percentages of CD154⁺ cells among CD4⁺ and number of CD154⁺ cells after acquiring 5×10⁵ PBMCs (upper plots) or obtained from 1×10⁸ PBMCs after enrichment (lower plots). (B) Enumeration of rare antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cells in several donors using the CD154⁺ enrichment assay. The total number of enriched CD154⁺ T cells was determined using a single, live, non-dump, CD3⁺CD4⁺ gating strategy and background enriched from the non-stimulated control was subtracted. Depicted is the total number of CD154⁺ cells obtained after enrichment normalized to the total number of CD4⁺ cells applied on the column (MP65 n=21; GAD, NY-ESO n=19; MOG, WT-1 n=16; KLH, HIV Gag n=6). (C, D) Enriched CD154⁺ cells were ex vivo analyzed for phenotypical surface markers CD45RO and CCR7. Cells are gated on CD4⁺CD154⁺ lymphocytes. (C) Representative dot plot examples from one donor with percentages of cells among CD154⁺ cells and cell count (in brackets) and (D) statistical analysis for percentage of CD45RO⁻CCR7⁺ cells among the total number of CD154⁺ cells (n=6; two independent experiments were performed). Background enriched from the non-stimulated control was subtracted. (E, F) CD154⁺ enrichment allows generation of antigen-specific T cell lines from the naïve CD4⁺ T cell repertoire. 10⁸ purified memory (E) or naïve (F) CD4⁺ T cells were stimulated with CD3-depleted APCs and the indicated antigens. Enriched CD154⁺ cells were expanded for 14 days with IL-2 and autologous feeder cells. Expanded cell lines were re-stimulated in presence of autologous APCs with and without antigens as indicated, and reactive CD4⁺ T cells were determined by CD154 and TNF-α expression. Representative dot plot examples of one donor out of three with percentage of reactive cells among total CD4⁺ are shown.

Stimulation, Isolation and Characterization of Antigen-Specific T Cells.

For enrichment of auto-/tumor-/neo-antigen specific T cells 1×10⁸ PBMCs were stimulated for 7 hours with KLH (200 μg/ml; Immucothel Biosyn) or peptide-pools of C. albicans MP65, MOG, GAD, NY-ESO, WT-1 (0.6 nmol/ml; all Miltenyi Biotec), HIV Gag (1 μg/ml; JPT Peptide Technologies). 1 μg/ml Brefeldin A (Sigma Aldrich) was added for the last 2 hours of stimulation. After stimulation, cells were separated using the CD154 MicroBead Kit (Miltenyi Biotec) and analyzed for expression of phenotypic markers and cytokines.

Expansion and Re-Stimulation of Antigen-Specific T Cells from Naive and Memory Repertoire

For expansion of T cell lines from the naive or memory repertoire, CD4⁺ T cells were isolated by negative selection using the naive CD4⁺ T cell isolation kit or the memory CD4⁺ T cell isolation kit (both Miltenyi Biotec), respectively. In brief, PBMCs were labeled with a cocktail of biotin-conjugated antibodies and anti-Biotin Microbeads for depletion of unwanted cell types. Sorted T cell subsets always reached a purity of >99%, as analyzed by flow cytometry. 2×10⁷ isolated naïve or memory CD4⁺ T cells were stimulated with autologous CD3-depleted PBMCs as APCs in a ratio of 1:1 and the different antigens. Enrichment, cultivation and re-stimulation of reactive CD154⁺ cells from both CD4⁺ T cell subsets was performed as described above. 

1. A method for sensitive quantitative and/or qualitative analysis of target T cells comprising the steps a) enrichment of said cells from a mixture of said cells and other cells in a sample by the use of one or more activation markers expressed on antigen-activated T cells in a parallel cell sorting process; and b) analysis of the cells of step a).
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the parallel cell sorting process is a magnetic cell sorting process.
 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the magnetic cell sorting process uses superparamagnetic beads and separation columns.
 4. The method of claim 3 wherein manipulations of the target T cells following step a) are directly performed on the separation column.
 5. The method of claim 1 wherein the activation markers are CD137 and/or CD154 and/or cytokines.
 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the analysis of step b) is flow cytometry.
 7. The method of claim 1 wherein said target cells are selected from the group consisting of naïve T cells, memory T cells, and regulatory T cells.
 8. The method of claim 1 wherein the target T cells are specific for pathogens, tumor antigens, environmental antigens or autoantigens.
 9. The method of claim 1 wherein the target T cells are specific for fungi.
 10. The method of claim 1 wherein the target T cells are specific for Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans.
 11. The method according to claim 1 for diagnosing fungal infections in humans.
 12. The method according to claim 1 for diagnosing autoimmune diseases in humans.
 13. The method according to claim 1 for diagnosing allergies in humans.
 14. The method according to claim 1 for diagnosing tumor diseases in humans.
 15. The method according to claim 1 for monitoring or predict the success of vaccination with a certain antigen. 